This article will look at the causes of volcanoes in the light of the current state of knowledge and compare with the claims of the religious texts, so that we can ask important questions and answer them with authority, and not hearsay or speculation. Two weeks ago a powerful earthquake shook Japan resulting in widespread damage, a massive tsunami, and the destruction of nuclear powered facilities with the release of deadly radiation and radioactive materials that threaten regions as far afield as the US. Many religious people believe their god or gods can cause such natural disasters for specific reasons. This has triggered debates on whether these events are indeed caused by supernatural beings, and if or why these omnipotent entities can or cannot prevent or stop these occurrences and save us all the grief, destruction and severe economic impacts that follow.

Before we can understand volcanoes we must understand the structure of the earth. As we know, the earth is spherical object like an orange that orbits a star that we call sun, due to the pull of gravity. If we could take a knife and slice through the earth, what would we see? Well the outer layer or the surface that we are used to is called the crust. It is about 3 to 10 miles thickness from the ocean floor, and up to 40 miles thick over land. The crust is not smooth, it has mountains, valleys, and even under the ocean there are deep trenches, hills, and undulating features similar to those on land. The chemical composition of the crust is mostly silicon, aluminum, calcium, magnesium, iron, phosphorus and other elements that sustain life as we know it and from which life on this planet continues to evolve. A very important observation is that the crust is not one single solid entity, but it is rather consists of individual pieces that are moving independently of each other. We call these tectonic plates. A good analogy would be a boiled egg that we are about to peel to eat. As we hit the egg on a hard surface the shell fragments into individual pieces but they are still somehow connected to each other and also to the material below. This is kind of how the tectonic plates are working. So far we have observed that our earth has 12 of these plates and have named some of them the North American plate, the African plate, the Eurasian plate, the Pacific plate, the Philippines plate, the Antarctic plate, and others. The African plate for example carries the African continent and the floor of part of the Atlantic ocean as well as part of the floor of the Indian ocean. Now, where any two plates come in contact with each other we observe one plate sliding over the other or scraping each other laterally. We call this a subdcution zone. Due to this process at most subduction zones we see features such as volcanoes, as well as ridges and trenches at the bottom of the oceans.

So back to our earth we have sliced open with a knife as if it was an orange. After the crust, the next layer we see is called the mantle. The mantle is about 1800 miles thick and constitutes over 85% of the earth’s volume. The mantle consists of mostly rocky materials but due to the excessive pressure they are in liquid or semi solid form. That is why we say the earth mantle is viscous, that is to say it is like a thick soup somehow soft some places solid, that kind of environment. So in effect the plates of the crust are floating on this mantle and as with all liquids and viscous substances there is some form of flow from one direction to the other. This is what causes the crust tectonic plates to be moving about. So to understand volcanoes we must focus on the crust and mantle and the interaction between them. We shall come back to this in a minute.

The third and final layer we see in our sliced open earth, as if it was an orange we have cut open with a knife, is called the core. This is towards the center. The core is about 14% of the earth’s volume, but consisting mainly of iron and nickel, therefore it is extremely dense. The core is located about 3200 miles deep from the earth surface. The temperature here ranges from 4400 to 6100 degrees centigrade. So we can understand how the heat from the core plus the high pressure in the mantle cause the mantle to be molten and also causes currents or convection which is causing the mantle be in a state of constant motion, so the crust plates sitting on the mantle will be in motion all the time as well. So now we have mastered the structure of the earth, we can now discuss what causes volcanoes.

Now if we were to plot the location of the world’s active volcanoes on a map that also shows the locations of the earth’s tectonic plates, we shall easily see that the overwhelming majority of volcanoes lie on top of subduction zones. This is an indication that there is some correlation between them. Why is that?

As we all know from our daily lives, a crack is a zone of weakness in an object, or an area where some damage has been done. The earth crust is no different. The subduction zones are points of weakness and if the pressure from the viscous mantle is high enough, like water gushing from a burst pipe, hot molten rock material can force its way from the mantle through the crack in the crust (subduction zone) and come to the surface. When inside the volcano and waiting to come to the surface we call this molten material magma. Once flowing on the earth surface we call it lava. This flow of lava happening at a particular spot on the earth surface is what we call volcanic activity or vulcanicity. The specific point at which the lava comes out of the ground is called the crater. The areas within the volcano where the magma gets stored before flowing over the earth surface is called a magma chamber. Over several eruptions based on the intensity of the events at a particular location, there is a buildup of some of the cooled solidified materials from the event. This build up appears to us humans as a hill or mountain. In many cases the conduit through which the magma flows to the surface can be observed if one was to climb the hill and look down into it. In some cases ash, poisonous gases and other debris may intermittently flow from the mountain even though no eruption is imminent. This is the reason many ancient stories describe smoking mountains etc etc. A few examples include Mount Merapi in Indonesia which recently underwent a full scale eruption causing thousands of villagers to flee their homes. In 1991 Mount Pinatubo in Philippines erupted causing the US military base there to be wiped off and permanently abandoned. Closer to home Mount Nyiragongo on the Congo-Rwanda border is an active volcano that went into full scale eruption in 2002 causing over 400,000 residents to flee for dear life.

It is also pertinent to note that a small minority of volcanoes are not located over or near subduction zones. So how then did those ones come about? Well, this is due to what we call local hotspots. In other words there may be some local place where certain interactions in the earth core and mantle are so intense that the crust simply gives way for the material to spew out. One example of such a volcanic region is Hawaii, now a US state. The entire group of islands that form Hawaii are located on top of an active hotspot that has been erupting for over 28 million years and continues to do so every few decades. In fact the islands themselves exist only because enough volcanic material has been deposited over this 28 million year period to overcome the sea.

Let us look at some other unique features and events associated with volcanoes. Pyroclastic flows. A pyroclastic flow is a fast-moving current of extremely hot gas (some up to 1,000 °C) and rock which travel away from a volcano at speeds generally as great as 700 km/h (450 mph). The flows normally occur at the ground level and travel downhill, or spread out sideways under gravity. They are common and arguably the most devastating result of certain types of volcanic eruptions. The ancient Roman regional city of Pompeii was destroyed by a volcano in 79 AD. Modern investigation of the ruins indicates that the scale of destruction could only have been possible by pyroclastic flows. So far the remains of humans and domestic animals that were present have been found perfectly preserved and encased in amber. The volcano Krakatao in Indonesia erupted in 1883. Some of the pyroclastic flows caused damage on other islands some over 30 miles away. This is the first time scientists learned that pyroclastic flows can cross over the ocean and cause damage elsewhere. And there are several other examples

Subglacial volcanoes. These are volcanoes that are buried under ice sheets in the cold regions of the earth. Mount Kafla and Eyjafjallajökull in Iceland are examples. Other factors result in such volcanoes spewing mud, ash and particulate matter into the atmosphere. This author was privileged to see the last eruption of the latter in May 2010 from my airplane window as I flew to Amsterdam enroute to Ghana to visit after a lengthy absence from our beloved country.

Volcanoes on the sea floor. These are common and are easily observed mostly at the mid oceanic ridges, that is where the tectonic plates collide with each other causing the earth crust and hence the ocean floor to bulge upwards. The mid Pacific sea floor is the most active in this regard

Geysers and Hot springs. These are springs out of which hot water naturally comes out of the ground. In many cases they may also undergo gushing or spraying of the water out at high pressure as well as the emission of steam. Geysers are caused by the rock holding the water being in contact with magma or a small hidden volcanic hotspot. Some ancient peoples of North America and Europe for example used these to cook their food or as communal or ritual baths during the cold seasons.

On other planets. It is worth noting that astronomy and space travel have revealed that volcanic activity is not limited to here on earth. Volcanoes, including active ones, have been observed on Mars, Venus, Triton (a moon of Neptune), Io (a moon of the planet Jupiter), and Enceladus (a moon orbiting the planet Saturn). Our very own moon has volcanoes but measurements show they are not active at this time.

So as we can see volcanic activity is part and parcel of the structure of the earth itself. As long as the earth exists there will always be volcanoes. Just as we will always have a water cycle producing rains, or earthquakes continuously stabilizing and redistributing energy from the earth’s core, we shall always have volcanoes recycling materials from the inner regions of the earth to the surface. Volcano is a natural phenomenon driven by natural processes alone, no deities are even necessary. No doubt about it. Volcanoes (and also earthquakes) are in fact direct evidence that this earth was not created specially by a deity or that the earth was created in its current form, but rather it proves that the earth has undergone changes over several billions of years to evolve into its current form. So now we have this knowledge, when religious people tell us that volcanic eruptions are a sign of their favorite deity one day coming down from the clouds we can tell them with authority that such claims are not true, but rather fairy tales invented by ancient peoples who had no scientific training, and passed down the stories from one generation to the next. We should ask them why their deity did not mention the correct explanation in his book. Did he forget? An omniscient being forgetting things? Or did he not know? Then how can he claim he created this earth? They claim we are undergoing an increase in these events and therefore their Jesus or whatever demigod they believe in is coming soon to a city near you with his angels, and some of us on the ground will be pulled up into the sky to meet him, like a president of Ghana returning home from a state visit. The so-called rapture. The claim is false, because volcanic activity is a geological process and has nothing to do with phantoms appearing in the sky or humans being able to defy or reverse gravity and fly upwards instead of falling downwards. Volcanic activity will not lead to any rapture. In fact rapture is not mentioned in the Bible, it is a belief based on interpretation by ancient scholars and over the years became a tradition. Just like the holy trinity, it is not mentioned in the Bible itself.

There is no increase in volcanic activity. It remains the same on average overall throughout the world and always will be because of the very structure of the earth itself. We perceive there are more these days simply because today we have 24 hour news service reporting almost everything happening all over the world on cable TV, CNN, BBC, internet etc etc. In the past such events happened and we never heard of them. For example if Europeans had not colonized Africans, we may never have heard of Mount Vesuvius in Italy a very active volcano in Europe, and likewise Europeans would not have known about Mount Nyiragongo in Congo or Ngorogoro crater in Tanzania, two active volcanoes in Africa. Presently there are about 500 active volcanoes in the world, the majority of which are located along the so-called Pacific ”Ring of Fire”, and around 50 of these erupt each year. In Africa we have the highest point on the continent, Mount Kilimanjaro in Kenya being a volcano, even though it is currently inactive, imagine the devastation it will cause someday when it comes out of dormancy. Yes, it will be like somebody standing upstairs and pouring boiling water on those down below, there will be no mercy and millions of casualties. The United States alone is home to 50 active volcanoes. There are more than 1,500 potentially active volcanoes in the world, any of whom can come out of dormancy and cause havoc. An estimated 500 million people live near active volcanoes, and the fact that we are now becoming aware of this due to increased media coverage, education and knowledge of the facts does not mean we are now having an increase in volcanic activity as the religious nuts are claiming, based on ignorance.

The Bible mentions volcano or alludes to them in at least eleven scriptures. Let us take a quick look at some of them and assess them on their own merit.

Deuteronomy 4: 11; And ye came near and stood under the mountain; and the mountain burned with fire unto the midst of heaven, with darkness, clouds, and thick darkness.

Comment: So the mountain was burning and the fire was so high it was entering heaven. I see, so is the sky or clouds heaven? So why could the Bible not be clear and tell us it was magma or molten rock that was erupting and not that the mountain itself was burning?

Deuteronomy 5:23; And it came to pass, when ye heard the voice out of the midst of the darkness, (for the mountain did burn with fire,) that ye came near unto me, even all the heads of your tribes, and your elders

Comment: This narrative is also by default assuming the mountain itself was burning. Is that true? Never.

Judges 5:5; The mountains melted from before the LORD, even that Sinai from before the LORD God of Israel.

Comment: The problem is this cannot be true. Today if you purchase an air ticket to Egypt, from Cairo, you can take a train to the Sinai peninsula and see and touch Mount Sinai filly filly. The fact is Mount Sinai is not a volcano, and based on the geological evidence it has never been a volcano. So this claim is not right. Unless those who believe it can tell us why God has erased all the evidence of the past volcanic activity of this mountain, and why? Where else has he erased such evidence? The worldwide flood maybe? Another claim for which there is not a shred of geological evidence.

Psalms 97:5; The hills melted like wax at the presence of the LORD, at the presence of the Lord of the whole earth.

Comment: Why does the bible describe things wrongly? In volcanoes it is not the mountain that is melting, it is the magma from the mantle and crust that is flowing out of the crater. Why does an omniscient father get this simple process wrong?

Psalms 97:32; He looketh on the earth, and it trembleth: he toucheth the hills, and they smoke.

Comment: I see, so God simply stares at the earth and it starts trembling. I guess this is the cause of earthquakes, no mention of tectonic plates and subduction zones. Then god touches the mountains, I would believe any mountain, and a volcano will happen. Very funny. Then why are specific mountains volcanic and others are not? Why are all volcanoes situated on top of subduction zones or local hotspots? Is it a coincidence? So god does not know this? Or it is an error by the human author of the Bible? So why did God not correct it? Does he countenance false information?

Psalms 144:5; Bow thy heavens, O LORD, and come down: touch the mountains, and they shall smoke.

Comment: This is another example of the default position that volcanoes are caused by God touching any mountain. Is this the case?

Isaiah 34:9; And the streams thereof shall be turned into pitch, and the dust thereof into brimstone, and the land thereof shall become burning pitch.

Comment: This is a prophecy in reference to an impending destruction

Isaiah 64:1 – 3; Oh that thou wouldest rend the heavens, that thou wouldest come down, that the mountains might flow down at thy presence, As when the melting fire burneth, the fire causeth the waters to boil, to make thy name known to thine adversaries, that the nations may tremble at thy presence! When thou didst terrible things which we looked not for, thou camest down, the mountains flowed down at thy presence.

Comment: Once again more ignorance. No, the mountain is not melting, it is the molten material from the mantle below the surface that is coming up due to the volcanic activity.

Jeremiah 51:25; Behold, I am against thee, O destroying mountain, saith the LORD, which destroyest all the earth: and I will stretch out mine hand upon thee, and roll thee down from the rocks, and will make thee a burnt mountain.

Comment: So in this case, God is threatening to punish an adversary by sending a volcano to cause destruction.

Micah 1:3-4; For, behold, the LORD cometh forth out of his place, and will come down, and tread upon the high places of the earth. And the mountains shall be molten under him, and the valleys shall be cleft, as wax before the fire, and as the waters that are poured down a steep place.

Comment: Here the prophet Micah is warning the people of Israel of an impending doom from the Lord. So the Lord will leave his residence, come down to this planet, and melt the mountains to cause this punishment, and when he is finished, climb back up to heaven to sit in his armchair and continue playing video games. And this shall cause mountains and valleys to be remolded. Is this how it works? Nada.

So at this point we shall call on the believers to come forward and explain to us why their God failed to mention that magma escaping from the earth’s mantle is the reason for volcanoes and not angels, demons, and phantoms that the religious books claim. Why did that god lie, or conceal facts and foster lies? We need the religious to explain to us how and why they think the earth was perfectly created if these catastrophic events are clearly part and parcel of the earth itself. This tells us that the earth was created and fashioned to its current form by natural processes alone and no god was involved, in fact no god was even necessary. But assuming the volcanoes are of spiritual significance and a god is in control, then why cant he block the lava from flowing downhill and killing people and causing devastation all over the world? Have you noticed that the victims of such events are always mostly the poor and may not have the resources or transportation means to flee? Does god favor rich evacuees, Why? In 2000 years not a single lava flow blocked by the hand of any god and saving yet another refuge crisis, why? Is this god incapable or malevolent? Anybody else behaving like this would be condemned and put in jail for unacceptable behavior. Does this god have ethics and morals? Whose morals? That of those who invented him, I mean the ancient barbaric nomads of the Judean desert who became the ancestors of the Israelites? I rest my case. We need the believers to step up and give answers, and by answers we mean credible answers based on facts and with proof, not bible quotations or telling us to believe stuff on faith.

kwaku ba; March, 2011